Have you ever felt like an alien in a foreign land, bewildered by behaviors and norms that seem utterly perplexing?
Welcome to the world of cultural taxonomies, a fascinating realm that can turn your expat experience from a series of baffling encounters into a journey of meaningful discovery. Though the term “cultural taxonomy” may sound unnecessarily academic, taxonomies are one of the most useful tools I’ve encountered for navigating cultural differences. Whether you’re struggling to understand why your neighbor behaves the way they do, or you’re simply curious about the intricate tapestry of global customs, cultural taxonomies will help unlock the culture code.
This is part 1 of a series on cultural taxonomies. Read part 2 here: Cultural Taxonomies, Part 2: A Deep Dive.
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Understanding cultural taxonomies
One of the fascinating things about living in different cultures is that you quickly realize two truths:
First, cultures differ dramatically from one another (“Thank you, Captain Obvious,” I hear you say. You’re welcome. I know insights like these are why you follow The Prepared Expat).
Second, as much as cultures differ dramatically, human beings are the same the world over. That’s not to say that we don’t have differences—we have dramatic ones! But underlying those differences are uniquely and distinctly human traits that are remarkably similar the world over. Our human needs, longings, fears, desires, pains, and hopes may be met in different ways, but they are remarkably similar in their roots.
So why do these two truths matter? Brilliant question, I’m glad you asked! The sameness of human nature expressed differently in cultures means that we can meaningfully compare how different cultures express the same parts of human nature. For example, human beings all over the world have faced the inherent challenges of how humans can effectively cooperate to form a society, of how a husband should relate to his mother-in-law, of how decisions get made in a family, etc. As different cultures have answered these questions in different ways, those answers make a culture distinct even as those answers, in turn, prompt other questions which need to be answered.
Anthropologists have sought to identify what questions humans worldwide have had to answer in order to survive and thrive. By identifying these universal (or near-universal) questions, anthropologists can then compare how cultures answer those questions. The questions are tied to human nature and thus are the same across cultures, but the answers differ according to each culture. After all, cultures differ widely, yet human nature remains the same.
These tools anthropologists have developed are called taxonomies. No taxonomy is perfect or exhaustive, and anthropologists have proposed and critiqued taxonomies endlessly. We’re not going to consider the academic debate about taxonomies today, but instead I want to introduce the taxonomy that I’ve found the most helpful, that by anthropologists Clyde Kluckhohn and Fredrick Strodtbeck.1
Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck’s Value Orientation Taxonomy
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck developed what they called a “Value Orientation” taxonomy in their book Variations in Value Orientations.2 They propose that cultures have to answer at least five fundamental questions. The answers they give “orient” the cultures towards one of three possible answers in each category. Using the grid below, you can compare cultures across five different orientations:
- Human Nature Orientation. What is the innate nature of humanity? Are humans fundamentally good, evil, or mixed?
- Human and Natural World Orientation. How do humans relate to nature and its forces? Are humans the masters over nature, victims of it, or are they to live in harmony with it?
- Time Orientation. What time influences people or captures their thoughts? The past, present, or future?
- Activity Orientation. Where should humans focus their attention and energies? On being, growing, or doing?
- Social Orientation. What is the proper way for humans to organize and relate to one another? In a hierarchical, group-oriented, or individualistic structure?
This can be helpfully displayed as a grid:
| Orientation | Possibility 1 | Possibility 2 | Possibility 3 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Human Nature | Good | Mixed | Evil |
| Human & Natural World | Dominant | Harmony | Subordinate |
| Time | Past | Present | Future |
| Activity | Being | Growing | Doing |
| Social | Hierarchy | Group-oriented | Individual |
While you can explore this Value Orientation Taxonomy in greater degree (here’s a helpful, academic resource if you like), this basic overview is likely enough to provide you with a lot of value. Just being aware of the different questions cultures ask, and the possible answers given, is already incredibly useful. However, to better understand these categories and the possible answers a culture gives to them, let’s compare how two cultures answer these questions.
Note: You may react to one of the above possibilities with a negative or positive sense–i.e. you like “harmony” with nature or dislike “hierarchy” of social relations. It’s important to note that this chart is not comparing or judging the morality of how cultures answer these questions, it is merely describing them. If you react negatively or positively, it’s likely because of how it conforms or contrasts with your own culture.
US American & Japanese cultures compared
To make our taxonomic comparison clear, I’m choosing two widely different cultures to compare: US American and Japanese. You may have no connection to either culture, and that’s fine; this exercise is not so much about learning each culture as it is about better understanding how the cultural taxonomy functions. I think you’ll quickly realize how helpful a cultural taxonomy is to your life as an expat.
Now, I’m not an expert on either Japanese or US American culture, so I have compiled the answers below from two researchers who have analyzed American and Japanese cultures according to Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s value orientations. The evaluation of American culture comes from anthropologist L. Robert Kohls in his book Survival Kit for Overseas Living while the Japanese information comes from Tatiana Danilova article in the International Journal of Social Science & Management entitled Approaching the East: Briefly on Japanese Value Orientations.
Note: Note: No individual’s orientation exactly matches the orientation of the entire group—I’m decidedly “un-American” in some of my values. Yet the broader cultural values do hold true as a broad trend and do influence even individuals who disagree with that trend.
Human Nature Orientation
Though many US Americans believe humans are fundamentally good, many Americans are influenced by the Christian idea of “original sin” which says that part of human nature is evil. There’s a range of views in the US, though most would agree that humans are changeable and able to improve. Consider, for example, how US Americans value “reforming” criminals in prison and giving them a second chance to reenter society. Even though many criminals do not reform, we value giving them a second chance, even if that puts society at risk of additional crimes.
Similarly, Japanese culture tends to believe that humans are inherently good. Both Shinto and Confucianist roots regard humans as being pure and good, though they can be tempted, influenced, and corrupted by evil spirits in the world. Evil, then, does not come from inside a person—it comes from outside a person.
Humanity and Natural World Orientation
US Americans see themselves as masters over nature, exerting control as needed. In summer, they adjust the air temperature to their preference through air conditioning, and in winter, they modify it via heating. The idea of letting the natural world determine the temperature of their house seems crazy to most Americans.
In contrast, Japanese culture tends to view humans as part of the natural world, not as masters over it. As such, their goal is to live in harmony with nature and its differing seasons, not change the natural world to suit their preference. In fact, Shinto Buddhism historically saw nature itself as a kind of living creature which had to be honored.
Time Orientation
US Americans are quite future-oriented. Most accept that traditions of the past shouldn’t get in the way of progress for the future; many, in fact, believe that holding to a tradition inherently prevents progress. The idea of change is viewed as almost inherently beneficial and sometimes change is made just for change’s sake. US Americans little consider how their actions would be thought of by their grandparents and don’t even know the names of their great-grandparents.
Japanese culture, by way of contrast, is heavily past-oriented and places a high value on tradition. The traditions of the past function as a kind of ever-present guide that can determine one’s actions today. An individual lacks the authority or ability to abruptly change the decisions of their great-grandparents.
Activity Orientation
US Americans are so dominantly doing-focused that it is hard for them to conceive of what a ‘being-focused’ culture even means. Americans make plans (future-oriented) and ruthlessly work to accomplish them. We study books on productivity that seek to seize every moment so there is no “wasted time” and more can be accomplished. Even in leisure, our social interactions are oriented around activities. We don’t spend 6 hours a day with our friends doing “nothing”—we fill that space with activity.
As you might have guessed, Japanese culture differs dramatically in this metric, being decidedly “being-oriented. In a being culture, one’s value comes not from what one doggedly achieves in the face of obstacles (activity orientation); instead, one’s identity is shaped by and based on the relationships one has and how well one perform’s one’s duties towards others. While US American culture pities folks who are too elderly to ”contribute to society”, Japanese culture values the elderly because of their age and life experience.
Social Orientation
Individualism is the name of the game for US Americans. Most US Americans see “family” as one’s immediate nuclear family. Americans feel no obligation to see, let alone financially support, their second cousins, great aunts and great uncles, or the children of their sibling’s spouse. In fact, we would probably not consider the children of the sister of your sister-in-law to even be part of “our” family. Outside of family, Americans shake hands and say “hello” to everyone regardless of age, gender, or social status.
In stark contrast, Japanese culture is rigorously hierarchical. What one person thinks or values is less important than, and must be subjected to, the broader demands of one’s family or group and, in particular, the decision of one’s elders or even ancestors. This hierarchy influences even Japanese language, as Japanese not only has “polite/formal” language and “informal” language, but polite language has multiple forms for use in different situations. Family obligations are strong, and, unless you desire to shame yourself and your family, they are unbreakable.
The benefits of a cultural taxonomy
Hopefully, the above contrast between Japanese and American culture makes the benefit of using a cultural taxonomy to compare cultures obvious. Even a simple paragraph about how each culture differs in each orientation would go a long way toward helping an American live in Japan or a Japanese person do business with an American. It gives a framework in which one can understand what cultural differences to expect even as it helps an individual understand the norms of a culture.
To make these benefits explicit, though, cultural taxonomies are beneficial to expats in several ways:
- A cultural taxonomy helps make you aware of how your host culture may differ from your passport country. As an American, I previously wasn’t even aware that other cultures might value “being” more than action, let alone understand what a “being focused” culture was. Part of the challenge of crossing cultures is that you’re culturally blind to how your host culture may differ from your home culture. A cultural taxonomy helps make you aware of how cultures can differ, which enables you to pay attention to those differences.3
- Using a cultural taxonomy to explicitly compare your home culture with your host culture will help you be aware of the ways your “default settings” will most likely cause conflict with locals and, in turn, the parts of local culture that will likely aggravate you the most. If you’re aware, you can then intentionally adapt your behavior to be more friendly to locals. “How would I meet my friends in more of a being-oriented way than an action-oriented way?”
- Cultural taxonomies help you understand the why of cultural differences. Are you shocked that locals wear 7 layers of clothing rather than turn on a heater? You’ve noticed the norm; the cultural taxonomy helps you understand the why of the value—it’s a culture that lives in harmony with nature, not one that views humans as masters of the natural world. Being aware of possible cultural answers to these “universal” questions will help you not only notice differences but understand the values underlying them.
- By better understanding what is happening and why, you can better avoid Raging Expat Syndrome and, more importantly, build meaningful and respectful relationships with locals by learning their culture.
Long-time readers of The Prepared Expat will notice that a cultural taxonomy helps you do C-A-L-M. Specifically, a cultural taxonomy helps you Carefully Observe what is happening around you (the first and second benefits mentioned above) even as it helps you Learn humbly (the third benefit mentioned above). Meanwhile, doing C-A-L-M helps you build deep relationships with locals (the fourth benefit above), so C-A-L-M and cultural taxonomies are mutually reinforcing.
Conclusion
I can’t count the number of times when knowledge of Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s cultural taxonomy has helped me understand a cultural difference I’ve noticed. More than that, knowing how my home culture has set my “defaults” has enabled me to intentionally act in ways contrary to that “programming” but which is more attuned to local values. I hope this brief overview—and part 2 of these series—helps you survive and thrive in your relationships as well
Want to dive in deeper? Check out Cultural Taxonomies, Part 2: A Deep Dive, giving you a deep dive into Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s taxonomy:
Does this information about cultural taxonomies shed light on any cultural differences you’ve encountered? Let me know in the comments, I’d love to hear!
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Footnotes
- There are other popular taxonomies, some of the more popular ones listed here: Milton Rokeach who proposed the Rokeach Value Survey which compares cultures across 36 different values. Geert Hofstede whose “Dimensions of Culture” theory used six categories to compare cultures: power distance, individualism v. collectivism, masculinity v. femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term v short-term orientation, indulgence v. self-restraint. Last, Shalom H. Schwartz developed a theory of Basic Human Values which compares cultures across ten types of values: achievement, benevolence, conformity, hedonism, power, security, self-direction, stimulation, tradition, and universalism. ↩︎
- I first encountered this taxonomy in the book Survival Kit for Overseas Living by anthropologist L. Robert Kohls. I’m indebted to his helpful summary of Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s theory. ↩︎
- This is one reason I encourage you to consider other cultural taxonomies, not just that of Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (see footnote 1, above). Those other taxonomies will make you aware of other differences that exist between cultures. Indeed, Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck acknowledged their own taxonomy was not exhaustive, even proposing but not developing a sixth orientation of “space.” Being aware of multiple taxonomies will expand the lens by which you can understand cultural differences. ↩︎
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